Federal courts consistently have held that deportation is a collateral consequence. For example, in El- Nobani v. United States, 287 F.3d 417, 419 (6th Cir. 2002), the petitioner claimed that his lack of awareness of the deportation consequences rendered his plea involuntary and unknowing. The United States Court of Appeals for the Sixth Circuit disagreed: "A defendant need only be aware of the direct consequences of the plea . . . . A collateral consequence is one that remains beyond the control and responsibility of the district court in which that conviction was entered. . . . It is clear that deportation is not within the control and responsibility of the district court, and hence, deportation is collateral to a conviction. . . . Thus, the fact that petitioner was unaware of the deportation consequences of his pleas does not make his pleas unknowing or involuntary." (Citations omitted; internal quotation marks omitted.) Id. at 421; see also United States v. Fry, 322 F.3d 1198, 1200 (9th Cir. 2003) ("we have held that deportation is a collateral, not direct, consequence of the criminal process"); United States v. Romero-Vilca, 850 F.2d 177, 179 (3d Cir. 1988) ("we hold that potential deportation is a collateral consequence of a guilty plea"); United States v. Quin, 836 F.2d 654, 655 (1st Cir. 1988) (deportation generally regarded as collateral consequence); United States v. Campbell, 778 F.2d 764, 767 (11th Cir. 1985) ("deportation is a collateral consequence of a guilty plea"); United States v. Russell, 222 U.S. App. D.C. 313, 686 F.2d 35, 39 (D.C. Cir. 1982) (well settled that rule 11 of Federal Rules of Criminal Procedure does not require informing defendant of possibility of deportation); Fruchtman v. Kenton, 531 F.2d 946, 948-49 (9th Cir.) (deportation is collateral consequence), cert. denied, 429 U.S. 895, 97 S. Ct. 256, 50 L. Ed. 2d 178 (1976); Michel v. United States, 507 F.2d 461, 466 (2d Cir. 1974) (same).